“Mindless confusion makes me mad.”
— “They Make Me Mad” by The Selecter
Pauline Black is considered by many to be the “Queen of Ska.”
Black and her band, The Selecter, are credited, along with their contemporaries such as Madness and The Beat, for developing the “2 Tone” style, or the “Second Wave of Ska,” in the late ‘70s that infused traditional ska music with the edge and aggressiveness of punk rock. The Selecter went on to influence such bands as Rancid, Mighty Mighty Bosstones and No Doubt.
But Black was more than the lead singer of an influential band. As a mixed-race child who lived with adopted parents, she was forced to face issues of racism and sexism from an early age that threatened to destroy her identity. Through music and determination, she turned this adversity into an opportunity to address these problems on a personal and societal level.
Unfortunately, Black’s experience was not unique; there is strong evidence that discrimination such as racism and sexism can be conceptualized as a form of stress that can damage physical and mental health. One meta-analytic review of 134 separate studies found that perceived discrimination was associated with poorer mental health (e.g., depression) and worse physical health (e.g., cardiovascular disease) as well as higher stress and increased unhealthy behaviors (e.g., smoking). And these effects may persist over time. One longitudinal study of 714 African-American adolescents who were 10- to 12-years-old at recruitment were assessed three times over a five-year period. Results showed that increases in perceived discrimination were associated with increased conduct problems and depression over time.
Black faced a nuanced challenge to her identity growing up: She is both “mixed race” and adopted. Black was born of Anglo-Jewish and Nigerian parents and was raised by a Caucasian family. Black told me, “Identity is crucial. To have had mine ripped away from me at birth with a transracial adoption was traumatic and alienating as I grew up. I wouldn’t recommend it to anybody.”
Theory and initial research suggests that mixed race children may face unique challenges in the form of discrimination and may be at risk for poorer health and well-being. Mixed-race children may not only face discrimination because of being identified as part of a minority race, but also not feel fully able to embrace a specific cultural identity because of being “mixed.” Children who are adopted are also hypothesized to be at risk because of the range of stressors that they may face during the adoption process, including the possibility of being unable to connect with their heritage of origin.
“Many issues arise when a mixed-race child has their origins legally stripped away at birth. Much is made these days of the undesirability of placing black children with white families in Britain. We now have many checks and balances in place, whereby such children are kept in touch with their birth mothers, and their adoptive parents are encouraged to teach the child about their ethnic origins,” she said.
“No such thing was in place when I was born. My name, origin and identity were erased in the national birth registry, which resided at St. Catherine’s House in London, and was cross-referenced with a new identity. Not only that, but the working-class family I was adopted into held many of the casual racist attitudes that pervaded Britain in the 1950s, when color bars in clubs and race riots in Notting Hill, London, were rife.”
Unfortunately, Black felt that her parents’ choice of how to handle her racial identity worsened, rather than helped the issue. “Probably in an effort to protect me from such problems, my new parents were eager to erase my color, too, so they brought me up as if I was a little white girl … . I’m not blaming my adoptive mum and dad; they didn’t know any better and only reflected the feelings of the majority of the British population at the time. Postwar Britain was essentially jingoistic and insular in those days,” she explained.
“This strategy worked for a while, but when I was about to start school, my mother had the onerous task of explaining my origins. It was obvious even to my mother that my future all white school friends would probably zero in on the ‘elephant in the classroom’ and would notice that I was black. From that moment on, I knew I was different. However, I also realized that nobody else I encountered saw that difference as a positive thing,” she said.
Black faced many forms of discrimination growing up, but said that it was the seemingly innocuous “everyday discrimination” that was actually the most destructive. “It is the casual racism and sexism that exists in society that does the most damage. It is so difficult as a child to understand why the color of one’s skin is such a problem if it isn’t white. It’s exhausting to learn how to maneuver through the many micro-aggressions, which are keenly felt on a daily basis,” she said.
Research supports Black’s insight; studies suggest that subtle or “minor” forms of discrimination, such as people being less courteous, can have serious effects. For example, one study examined the cross-sectional association between self-reported experiences of discrimination and C-reactive protein, a marker of inflammation, in a sample of 296 older African-American adults. Experiences of discrimination were associated with increased inflammation, even when controlling for the effects of variables such as smoking, presence of chronic disease and depression.
One subtle form of discrimination is the seemingly benign act of stereotyping, which has been shown to be damaging to children. Studies of “stereotype threat” show that making people aware of stereotypes of race or gender can have negative impact on academic-test performance. For example, one study showed that making girls aware of the gender stereotype that girls are less successful in math than boys resulted in poorer performance on academic tests.
Unfortunately, as is reported by many who experience discrimination, these micro-aggressions occurred for Black in a variety of settings. These events were: “too numerous to mention, as it probably is for any person of color in this world,” she said.
Black noticed the discrimination in the popular media: “There was a total lack of black role models in the movies, in magazines or on TV. It made me angry that I was never able to discuss issues raised about something I had seen on television or in newspapers that concerned being black in a racist society.”
Black’s experiences with literature were unfortunately no different. “Black women or girls were rarely featured in any of the stories or literature that I encountered as a child, and if they did, their presence always had negative connotations. Jane Austen books were about as useful to me as a chocolate teapot. But probably little white girls find the same problem with such books, too; they are hardly a blueprint for feminism,” she said.
School proved to be no safe haven as history lessons appeared to be biased. “I was the only black child in all the schools that I attended: infants, junior and senior. In history lessons, it was difficult to endure the nonsense and downright ‘fairy tale’ that was taught about the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, but questions about why such horrors occurred remained unanswered by my history teacher. It was a lesson in deliberate obfuscation that I felt very keenly,” Black explained.
Black’s home life did not prove to be any less troubling: “My natural hair was always a problem for my white adoptive mother, who didn’t know how to manage it or show any interest in finding some information about how to handle it. Nobody in my family saw the necessity to cream my skin to keep it from drying out and looking ashy. Nobody understood that I needed to know about my ethnic origins.”
Moreover, Black went on to describe how she had to endure blatant racism from her own family members, “Racist jokes were shared in my family in my presence. The sight of black people on the television was mainly met with hostility or derision, particularly during the period of the civil rights movement in America. All of my white relatives complained bitterly about having to see a black or Asian doctor.”
Overall, these experiences resulted in Black feeling more reticent to discuss the difficult issues of race that she observed. She said, “I learned at an early age that discussions about racism were unwelcome, primarily because it made white people feel uncomfortable.”
Taken to an extreme, this type of experiential avoidance can have damaging psychological and physical effects. Research shows that emotional suppression actually makes negative emotions worse, not better. In contrast, expressing emotions through activities such as writing down one’s feelings can improve mood and reduce unhealthy stress responses.
It would have been understandable if these experiences proved too difficult for Black to manage. And yet Black decided to take concrete steps to address the racism and sexism she faced on a daily basis. Evidence suggests many children who grow up in difficult circumstances show resilience, or the ability to use a wide range of skills to cope with stressful events.
One of the main ways that Black chose to cope was to connect with her heritage. “Somehow, I knew that I had to regain my real identity, and the only way I could do that would be discovering my origins,” Black explained. “It was another 38 years before I became confident enough to do just that. Since rediscovering my birth parents, I have felt whole again, settled both in mind and body. I am also intensely proud of my Jewish-Nigerian heritage.”
It started with the proactive decision to redefine her racial identity. “In the meantime, I made a conscious decision to identify as black from about the age of 15, and even went so far as to change my name to Black by deed poll at the age of 26; mainly, because my family always referred to me as ‘colored’ as opposed to black.”
As Black illustrates, many theorists suggest that, “culture is medicine;” a strong connection to one’s culture can facilitate a strong identity and good health. As an example, one study of 287 American Indian children found that participating in traditional cultural practices was not only associated with lower levels of depression, but also protected children against the negative effects of discrimination.
She also began to actively seek out the role models who seemed to be kept from her as a child. “I consciously looked for black female role models as a child. Mostly these role models were singers, actresses or athletes. The performing arts seemed a place where blackness was not an impediment. And in athletics, it was a positive bonus. Also there were black doctors and technical staff in hospitals. They also served as role models, albeit barely tolerated by immediate family,” she said.
Perhaps in part because of these role models, Black turned to music. “I’ve always been drawn to female voices, black or white. Probably my favorite is Sister Rosetta Tharpe, who played guitar and sang, but these days is mostly forgotten by the musical fraternity. Her performances were extraordinary and full of magical energy. I also admire Billie Holiday, who I was lucky enough to portray on stage in London in 1989,” she said.
Black chose well, as studies show that music can heal emotional wounds such as those made by racism and sexism. For example, research has shown that adding music therapy to treatment as usual for people who suffer from schizophrenia improves both symptoms and social functioning. Additional studies demonstrate that listening to or playing music can improve symptoms of depression, anxiety and chronic pain.
“Music is something that is basic, primal. Regardless of race or gender, it is difficult for any sentient human being to fail to be moved by a good beat or an interesting rhythm. Humanity was probably making music in some form or another before speech, even if it was just humming together around a cave fire. We pitch our voices differently, depending on our emotional states and moods. That is music as far as I am concerned,” she explained.
More, Black’s choice of musical style gave her an opportunity to address issues of racism and sexism on a societal level. At the core of the “2-Tone” sound is not only the blues that influenced ska, but also punk rock. Both genres have a long history of artists confronting difficult personal and societal issues –even if this truth is not comfortable for the audience.
“Punk was a difficult musical form for many people, particularly for those who embraced mainstream popular music. Sometimes, punk flirted with some distasteful and frankly dubious imagery when it first appeared on the stage, but many bands very quickly began to experiment with the emerging conscious reggae music from the Caribbean, which successfully infiltrated British music through successive waves of immigration,” she said. “Those bands that made that synthesis with another culture were the ones whose music has endured; e.g., The Clash, The Ruts, The Specials, The Selecter, The Beat from the 2-tone movement.”
“What I liked about punk was that it flew in the face of early [1970s] so-called supergroups like Genesis and Pink Floyd. Rock music was brought back to earth. Suddenly, young punks were tearing up the rule book and putting real energy and working-class ideas into the mainstream, instead of the bloated musical and cultural ideas of musicians with far too much money for their own good.”
The ska subculture was ideal for Black because it allowed for open questioning and experimentation. She explained, “Subcultures are attractive to young people because in our youth it is permissible to experiment, trying out many different ethical ideas and personal fashion styles, while sometimes changing our beliefs on an almost monthly basis, until we settle on one that we think best fits us. In my youth, the 2-tone movement was my best fit.”
In many ways, the racial makeup of The Selecter was a confrontation in and of itself, as was the choice to have Black be the lead singer and band manager. Black joined trailblazers such as Debbie Harry and Chrissie Hynde in challenging gender norms of male-fronted bands. “The Selecter is a racially mixed band, four people of color and four whites. It is rare for a woman to manage a band and be the lead singer. I fulfill both of these functions and I am lucky enough to work with some highly evolved male individuals,” she said.
The Selecter was also known for addressing political issues in its music. For example, songs like “Breakdown” can be interpreted as addressing the dangers of racism and inequality in society. More, the band has been more directly vocal about supporting issues such as workers’ rights.
Black recognizes that these societal ills will not go away easily. “Life is contradictory. Obviously, when many different kinds of people fetch up in the same place, there is a jostling for position, jobs, housing, etc. The ruling ideology of the day keeps us permanently divided by exploiting these differences. Fostering racism, pitting race against race. Their bully boys, the police and army enforce the rule of the conservative establishment. It’s not rocket science,” he said.
“It needs a fundamental change in society’s thinking, a day of reckoning before some people give up their long-held prejudices. All the laws and statutes on the books won’t protect somebody from racism or sexism if the prevailing thinking of the day is backward. You only have to look at the fact that there has been a black [president of the United States] for the past eight years to know that a few people in high office [are] not enough to fundamentally change things. Ferguson attests to that. But what [Barack] Obama has done is raise the expectations of black youth and that has yet to feed through into the next generation, but I am very hopeful.”
Black sees hope that music will always have the power to confront people with important societal messages. “I don’t think that message has ever been lost among musicians who want to do or say things with their music that go beyond the usual mainstream pop fodder that troubles the charts. In any decade, there have always been musicians that are willing to grasp that nettle and perhaps deal with some difficult subjects. The difficult job is to do that and be popular. Prince performs that task admirably.”
And she has advice for young people who also want to challenge and confront the world that they see. “Never let an adult tell you what to do, unless it’s literally going to save your life. Learn by your mistakes, but never make the same mistake twice,” Black said.
“And remember: Art comes first.”
